The Human Memory Model: How We Make Long-Term Memories

There are four steps to the memory process. The four steps include encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval. Once we perceive a stimulus, it is then decoded within the cortex’s sensory areas. The hippocampus then combines the codes. Memories go from stimuli to the short term memory and are only committed to the long term memory after the synapses have been strengthened enough.

The encoding process produces an engram when it perceives stimuli. An external stimulus could be someone grabbing a hold of your arm and yelling at you. An engram is a change in the neurons of the brain. This change can be biophysical or biochemical. A connection is sent from the primary sensory and associative areas of the cortex and the rhinal/entorhinal cortexes by the hippocampus to the medial temporal lobe. The neural network that is made up of cortical synapses takes the associations being made and records them. This record is now a link to the specific memory. Semantic encoding is the process by which long-term memories are created.

The consolidation process utilizes long-term potentiation. Long-term potentiation is the process that physically changes the structure of neurons in the brain and results in long-term memory. The process causes “a long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously” (Cooke, 2006). When we learn something the stimuli triggers neural networks to be created, altered, or strengthened. Neural networks are circuits of neurons in the brain made up of neurons. The neurons communicate via junctions known as synapses. New proteins are created inside the body of the neurons through synthesis. “Electrochemical transfer of neurotransmitters across synapse gaps to receptors (reinforce) communicative strength of certain circuits of neurons in the brain” (Mastin, n.d.). When they are repeatedly used, the synapse becomes more efficient thus physically changed by long-term potentiation resulting in long-term memories.

The storage process is passive. When the synapses are physically changed by long-term potentiation, the memory is stored there. They are continually reconstructed by the encoding process from elements that are scattered throughout other area of the brain. Storage is an ongoing process for our brains.

When you recall a memory, your brain reconstructs the elements required for the individual meeting. The recall process takes the memory from storage in the long-term area and moves it to the working memory. When you re-access the memory, a process almost identical to the encoding process occurs. When you are done recalling, it is taken back to storage in the long-term memory. This is known as re-consolidation.

Inferences can help people to improve their ability to learn. This involves relating other things that you already know, your schema, to what you are trying to learn. Emotional event are often recalled better than event that have no meaning to a person. Past and future memories can inhibit the ability of a person to recall memories. Distractions inhibit the ability to recall by slowing down the process. Distractions inhibit the ability to encode as well and could keep a person from being able to successfully recall the memory later.

In order to most efficiently be able to study, you should ensure that you have no distractions and are able to focus completely on what you are studying. Focus on concentration is very important as well, as “the ability to concentrate is one of the more important study skills you need to develop” (StudyTips, 2011). Staying organized can also help to keep you from being distracted. I is also very helpful when studying to try and use all types of memory to retain the information. Use visual aids and sounds when possible, make lists and create flashcards, anything that switches up the way you are studying. That way, you have a better chance of recalling the information because you have multiple locations in your brain that it is being stored and therefore, more chances to recall the info.

Retroactive interference occurs when a person attempts to remember something learned in the past. They end up being unable to recall the memory because something that was learned since that time obstructs the ability to correctly recall what you were initially trying to remember. Proactive interference occurs when a person is trying to recall recently learned material. The memory is unable to be accessed due to memories learned prior prevent it.

Fading is another type of forgetting that people experience. It occurs when we go to recall a memory and are unable to because we have not attempted to remember it for an extended period of time. The information is permanently stored in the brain but our link to it deteriorates. Fading can be avoided by actively restoring the memory.

Distortion is also a common type of forgetting and is “not really a separate type of forgetting, but rather a combination of the previous three types” (Purdue, n.d.). Distorted memories are misinterpreted by the person attempting to call them. Some of the memory is recalled accurately, while other parts are not. They are either completely forgotten or replaced with different parts of other memories.

References

Cooke. (2006). Oxford Journal. Retrieved from Plasticity in the human central nervous system: http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/129/7/1659

Mastin, L. (n.d.). The Human Brain. Retrieved from Long-Term Memory: http://www.human-memory.net/types_long.html

Purdue. (n.d.). Purdue Education. Retrieved from Forgetting: http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy6/edpsy6_forgetting.htm

StudyTips. (2011). StudyTips.org. Retrieved from How to Improve Your Study Skills: http://www.studytips.org/

Decision Support System (DSS) vs. Management Information Systems

A decision support system (DSS) is usually used by businesses. It is a computerized system used to combine integrated resources people can use for decisional purposes.  It is capable of collecting data from an array of sources and presenting them in an organized fashion to the end user. Decision support systems are often turned into applications. The difference between decision support systems and management information systems is that DSS is “to predict the effect of potential decisions beforehand” (McGraw-Hill, n.d.) and management information systems is for informational purposes to plan and direct business.

The fundamental components of a decision support system are the database, the model, and the user interface. The database is a collection of all the pertinent data necessary for retrieval. The model sets up the context of the decision and the user criteria.  The user interface is “the screen menus and icons, keyboard shortcuts, mouse and gesture movements, command language and online help, as well as physical buttons, dials and levers” (McGraw-Hill, n.d.).

At the Defense Logistics Agency where I work as a contract specialist, we procure state-of-the-art logistics and manufacturing systems in support of items and information technology systems critical for war fighting. These include decision support systems for On-Demand Manufacturing, military rations, chemical protective suits, and metal casting and forging. We use an enterprise business system for the procurements and it has functionalities that help in decision making during the pre-award process.

References

McGraw-Hill. (n.d.). Answers.com. Retrieved from Decision support system: http://www.answers.com/topic/decision-support-system

McGraw-Hill. (n.d.). Answers.com. Retrieved from User interface: http://www.answers.com/topic/user-interface

Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace

Emotional intelligence is the way that a person perceives, reasons, understands, and manages emotions. This type of intelligence is thought to be a key factor in a person’s ability to “build strong relationships, succeed at work, and achieve your goals” (Segal & Smith, 2010). Our emotional intelligence development process continues throughout our entire lives. Someone who exhibits emotional intelligence can reduce their stress level rapidly, is connected with their emotions, communicates nonverbally, can use humor to deal with challenges, and utilizes confidence and self-assurance with defusing conflict.

 Emotional intelligence is important because it “is the level of your ability to understand other people, what motivates them and how to work cooperatively with them” (Bressert, 2007).Emotional intelligence is thought to be a better indicator of future performance in the workplace than intellectual intelligence. “A study of Harvard graduates in business, law, medicine and teaching showed a negative or zero correlation between an IQ indicator (entrance exam scores) and subsequent career success” (Bressert, 2007). The emotional intelligence quotient is becoming increasingly popular in candidate selection in the workplace because it is a better indicator of how competent people are.

The four core abilities of emotionally intelligent people are self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. When someone has self-awareness, they are able to recognize the way they are feeling and know how those feelings affect thoughts and behavior. Self-awareness also demands the ability to know your strengths and weaknesses and have confidence in yourself. Self-management is having the ability to control impulsivity. Being socially aware means that you can access and understand how the people around you are feeling and are aware of their needs and concerns. Relationship management is how well you develop as well as maintain good relationships, clearly communicate your feelings, manage conflict, and work well in teams.

Becoming more emotionally literate is one way that a person can enhance their emotional intelligence. Instead of labeling people or situations, you should strive to label the way you feel about what is going on. It is also important to be able to distinguish the difference between your thoughts and your feelings. Phrases such as “I feel like...& I feel as if.... & I feel that” (Hein, 2012) are thoughts. A feeling begins simply with I feel… Analyzing your feeling and taking responsibility for them helps up to identify our emotional needs that are not being met. It is also important to validate the feelings of other and avoid people who invalidate you. Another way to enhance emotional intelligence is channeling anger into energy that you can put towards achieving a goal. Being empathetic towards others is one of the best ways to show your respect for them. Strive to listen to others and empathize with their feelings in place of advising, commanding, controlling, criticizing, judging or lecturing them.

When I took the self-administered EQ test on the Institute for Health and Human Potential website, I scored 54. Between 45-54 was described as having an emotional intelligence level that was very high. I felt that the test couldn’t be the greatest of indicators because the answers only ranged from strongly disagree to strongly agree. There also weren’t very many questions. It seemed very generic and I think a lot of people might see themselves as understanding or relaxed in high stress situations when they are not. I think that people’s perceptions of themselves would make them sound good if they took this test, even if they weren’t very emotionally intelligent. I think that an honest third party should be able to take the test about you and you would obtain a better reading of how emotionally intelligent someone is.

References

Bressert, S. (2007). Psych Central. Retrieved from What is Emotional Intelligence (EQ)?: http://psychcentral.com/lib/2007/what-is-emotional-intelligence-eq/

Hein, S. (2012, January 5). EQI. Retrieved from Developing Your Emotional Intelligence: http://eqi.org/summary.htm

Segal, P. J., & Smith, M. ,. (2010, September). HelpGuide. Retrieved from Emotional Intelligence (EQ): http://helpguide.org/mental/eq5_raising_emotional_intelligence.htm#authors

Information Systems Life Cycle

The life cycle of a time entry system includes numerous steps to be successful. The first step to solving the time card issue would be planning. The goals that we are hoping to achieve need to be defined and we need to clearly establish what we are hoping to achieve when creating this system. The problems that we want to solve with the new system have already been laid out and the system development can begin.

Next, the project goals need to be turned “into defined functions and operation of the intended application” (Kay, 2002). It will also be necessary to analyze the needs of the end user. When these things have been completed, the system design begins. The features and designs are described in detail to include rules, layouts, process diagrams, and pseudo code.

The next step is implementation, or the writing of the actual code. Integration and testing comes next. This process works to get all of the bugs and kinks out of the system so that its ready to go live. Going live with the system is the next step in the life cycle process. Deploying the system that has been developed can be one of the biggest, most crucial steps in the process because the workforce that is using it must be eased into it.

The last step of the life cycle process is to perform regular and necessary maintenance on the system. This includes making “changes, corrections, (and) additions” (Kay, 2002). Maintenance continues until the system is no longer in use. Maintenance is very important to keep the system up to date and working as efficiently as possible. 

References

Kay, R. (2002, May 23). Computerworld. Retrieved from QuickStudy: System Development Life Cycle: http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/71151/System_Development_Life_Cycle

Early Psychology Theories: Behaviorism, Cognitive, & Physiological

Early Psychology Theories

Behaviorism, cognitive, and physiological psychology are three of the earlier influential psychology theories.  They are all similar in the sense that they study what our behavior is and what it is that makes us behave that way. All of the theories are grounded in science. There also all share the same goal. The goal is to get a better understanding of individuals and groups. They also all aim to benefit society.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism focuses on observed behaviors. The sources of behavior are not internal, they are external. Behaviorism “is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning” (Cherry, 2012). We are thought to be conditioned by the interactions that we have in the environment around us. Altering this environment alters the subject’s thoughts, behaviors or feelings. Positive and negative reinforcement and punishment would be implemented. Giving a student longer recess time for turning in their homework on time would be an example of the use of behaviorism.

Cognitive

Where behaviorism focuses on behaviors that are observable, cognitive psychology focuses on internal mental state. Cognitive development is based on the construction of our thought processes; more specifically, how they “think, perceive, remember and learn” (Cherry, 2012). It specific focus areas are “information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development, and memory” (Answers Corporation, 2012). Cognition is when a person thinks. An example of cognition is when someone watches someone else while they are talking to them. Cognitive psychology has become greatly influential is numerous areas of modern day society. Mcleod (2007) points out that behaviorism assumes people are born with a clean slate and without any of the cognitive functions that cognition believes we have inherently.

Physiological

Physiological psychology focuses on the way that we think by connecting the way the brain physically operates with the actual things we do and say. Physiological psychology involves looking at the brain, its cells, structures, components, and chemistry, and finding how those things lead to our speech and actions, thus differing from behaviorism and cognition. “Animal experiments, always controversial, have also been used, for example by removing or cutting various parts of the brain and observing differences in behavior” (Changing Minds, 2011). Physiological psychology is similar to cognitive psychology because it also uses laboratory experiments to study behavior. Modern day science allows for less intrusive studies with fMRI’s and PET scanners. These machines give us insight into what areas of the brain are activated during different activities or thought processes. Today, psychiatrists prescribe different drugs that affect brain function to patients. “As an example, bipolar disorder is caused by abnormal concentrations of neurotransmitters and is therefore often treated with antidepressant medications that moderate the production or removal of neurotransmitters” (Knowledgerush, 2009).

References

Answers Corporation. (2012). Cognitive Development. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from Answers.com: http://www.answers.com/topic/cognitive-development

Changing Minds. (2011). Changing Minds. Retrieved from Physiological Psychology: http://changingminds.org/explanations/brain/articles/physiological_psychology.htm

Cherry, K. (2012). What is Behaviorism? Retrieved January 10, 2012, from About.com: http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm

Knowledgerush. (2009, November 1). Knowledgerush. Retrieved from Physiological psychology: http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Physiological_psychology/

Mcleod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved from Cognitive Psychology: http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html

Neurotransmitter's

A neurotransmitter is a chemical. These chemicals are located as well as released in the brain. They allow impulses to pass from one nerve cell to another. Nerve cells secrete neurotransmitters to communicate messages to one another because they do not directly touch one another. These nerve cells are known as neurons. Neurons can either be excited or inhibited by neurotransmitters. We know of approximately 50 different types of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters both directly and indirectly influence neurons which affect behavior.

            “A nerve impulse travels through a nerve in a long, slender cellular structure called an axon, and it eventually reaches a structure called the presynaptic membrane, which contains neurotransmitters to be released in a free space called the synaptic cleft” (Finley, 2012). Receptors then pick up the freely flowing neurotransmitters located in the postsynaptic membrane of a different neuron nearby. Once the molecule is picked up by the by the receptors of the postsynaptic membrane, it is internalized in the neuron and the impulse continues on.

            Norepinephrine is associated with alertness and eating. Not having enough is associated with depression, whereas having too much is associated with schizophrenia. People with schizophrenia have delusions, hallucinations, thought disorders, di8sorganized behavior, lack of emotion, social withdraw, loss of motivation, inability to make sense of information, inability to pay attention, and problems with memory. Dopamine is correlated with attention, movement, and learning. “Problems with certain naturally occurring brain chemicals, including the neurotransmitters dopamine and glutamate, also may contribute to schizophrenia” (MayoClinic, 2012) Dopamine in excess is associated with schizophrenia, where as a lack of dopamine is associated with some forms of depression as well as several symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson’s disease symptoms include muscular rigidity and tremors. The neurotransmitter problems contribute to the diseases. In the diseases, the flow of the neurotransmitter is defective. “In depression, the flow of the inhibitory neurotransmitter serotonin is defective, and molecules flow back to their originating site (the presynaptic membrane) instead of to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane” (Finley, 2012).

References

Finley, M. (2012). Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders. Retrieved from Neurotransmitters: http://www.minddisorders.com/Kau-Nu/Neurotransmitters.html

MayoClinic. (2012). MayoClinic. Retrieved from Schizophrenia: http://www.bing.com/health/article/mayo-MADS00196/Schizophrenia?q=schizophrenia&qpvt=schizophrenia

Sensory Adaptation

Sensory adaptation is defined in our textbook as “the process by which senses become less responsive to particular stimuli” (Editorial Board, n.d.). It is when our body gets used to the things that are occurring. It happens to all of our five senses. We experience “reduced sensitivity to stimulation that results from repeated presentations of that stimulation” (AlleyDog, 2012). What is happening from a scientific standpoint is the sensory neurons changing their sensitivity level to a constant stimulus over an extended period of time. We need to be able to adjust to our environment around us so that we can receive new sensory input when we need to, regardless of the surroundings. Our receptors are able to automatically adjust to different levels of stimulation so that they are as sensitive as possible but aren’t being overloaded. “As a result, our senses become less sensitive when the overall level of stimulation is high, but more sensitive when the overall level of stimulation is low” (Morris, n.d.).

Experiment 1 displayed the sensory adaptation of the skin. You can feel rubbing your index fingers gently over a piece of very coarse sandpaper thanks to your mechanoreceptors responding to the tactile sensation. The glabrous skin on the hands is part of the somatosensory system of our bodies. This system is responsible for haptic perception. Our fingertips are concentrated with Merkel’s disks and Meissner’s corpuscles. The receptor get signals from stimulation projects them to the somatosensory cortex.

This first time that I rubbed my finger over the coarse sandpaper in experiment 1, it felt very abrasive and rough. I rated it at a 6. It didn’t feel quite as abrasive the second time that I went back and rubbed my finger over the same sandpaper again. I rated it a 4. After rubbing it the first time, my receptors adapted to the feeling of the sandpaper and became less sensitive from the stimulation. Because of the decreased sensitivity, I did not perceive the sandpaper to feel as rough.

Experiment 2 displayed the sensory adaptation of chemical sense taste. The three cranial nerves responsible for detecting taster are the facial nerve, the glossopharyngeal nerve, and the vagus nerve. These three nerves send the information to nuclei in the brainstem which passes it along to the thalamus. The thalamus transfers the information to the cortex.

During experiment 2, tasting the sugar water first significantly changed the way that I thought the fresh water was going to taste. The fresh water had a very salty taste even though it did not have any salt added to it. The sugar water caused my taste buds to be less sensitive to sweetness. Because I didn’t taste as much sweetness and I am generally used to, my other taste buds had a heightened sensitivity comparatively. This caused the fresh water to taste saltier than normal to me.

Experiment 3 displayed the sensory adaptation of vision. The cornea detects light. The lens of the eyes bends that light ray into focus. The ray then travels through the pupil and is gathered by photoreceptors on the back of the retina. The two different types of photoreceptors are rods and cones. They are responsible for sending the information to the nervous system through the optic nerve.

At the beginning of the experiment, I had to remove all but 3 of the index cards to detect the light. As my eyes adjusted, the light seemed to become brighter and brighter. Over the 15 minute period, I was able to add an additional 8 cards to the flashlight for a total of 11. Because my eyes shifted to using rods instead of cones, my eyes were able to become more sensitive to the light.

Experiment 4 displayed the sensory adaptation of the skin, just as experiment 1 did. You can feel temperature thanks to your thermo receptors. The thermo receptors communicate stimulation to the hypothalamus.

 During the experiment, when my hands went into the hot and cold, I felt the temperature change immediately. When my hands went from the cold and hot bowls of water into the lukewarm water, the amount of time it took to feel the change felt delayed. Both of my hands also seemed like they were in two different temperatures of water though they clearly were not. My sense of temperature changed based on the direction of heat flow between the water and my skin.

            Adaptation is important from an evolutionary perspective because it allows us to cope with changes in our environment. “Within a single organism, "adaptation" can encompass morphology, physiology, development (through organizational effects or through differential timing of developmental events), and behavior” (UTK, 2010). If we were unable to adjust to a changing environment, we would has a reduced rate of survival.

References

AlleyDog. (2012). Psychology Glossary. Retrieved from Sensory Adaptation: http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Sensory%20Adaptation

Editorial Board. (n.d.). Introduction to Psychology. Words of Wisdom, LLC.

Morris. (n.d.). Prentice Hall. Retrieved from Sensory Adaptation: http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/morris2/chapter3/medialib/demo/1.html

UTK. (2010, August). Deep Ethology: evolution. Retrieved from Adaptation Defined: https://notes.utk.edu/bio/greenberg.nsf/6617131020461f6585256d24005739db/3ee9cccd7c64bffd85256cff0061f4d7?OpenDocument

MIS Infrastructure: Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, & Google Chrome

Internet Explorer showed the best results in Microsoft’s IE Fishtank which demonstrates a browsers hardware acceleration. Memory usage tests “see just how well a browser controls its memory usage when loading a decent number of sites, and also whether it’s able to release that memory once you’ve closed the tabs” (Ryan, 2009). For a single tab, Internet Explorer requires the least memory usage of all three browsers. Internet Explorer was also found to exhibit good memory management as well (Overa, 2011). Internet Explorer also has the preferred tab browsing system.

Mozilla Firefox has a Do Not Track feature that gives the user the option to opt out of any website that may be attempting to track them. As far browsing faster, “Firefox actually blew away both Chrome and Opera on the SunSpider JavaScript test” (Noyes, 2011). Firefox also takes up a minimal amount of RAM comparatively.

Google Chrome is the leading browser in HTML5 tests which is responsible for presenting the content that you find online. As far a memory usage and management, Google Chrome fell right in the middle of all of the browsers in all of the tests. On average, it is the most consistent. Because the browser has minimal options, people who aren’t as familiar with the internet may find the browser easier to use and less confusing and complex.

While Internet Explorer was found to use the least amount of memory for one single tab, its ability to utilize memory when having 40 tabs open was significantly less efficient that Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox.  The browser is also known to have the most security flaws out of the three. Another complaint many users have is that Internet Explorer fails to support many free extensions. Lack of add-ons and extensions for Internet Explorer make it difficult to customize the browser and have the best browsing experience.

Some of the disadvantages of Mozilla Firefox are its initial startup time. It takes Firefox 14 seconds to start up as opposed to 8.1 and 8.5 seconds for Google Chrome and Internet Explorer (Tech Media Network, 2012). Another huge issue for many is that “programmers, coders and other users cannot directly edit HTML using Mozilla Firefox” (Smith, 2009). A lot of users also have compatibility issues when using the browser. Some website do not work at all when opened with Mozilla. The browser has problems loading many types of scripts and widgets and sometimes does not read text font colors that are written on top of one another properly.

Google Chrome has a limited interface that leaves a lot of users wondering where all the options went. Google Chrome also frequently gives alerts and messages using informal wording such as “ ’Aw, Snap!’ While this informal wording may appeal to some users, it can feel so unfamiliar that you may mistakenly think your computer is infected with a virus or malware” (McCoy, 2011). Google Chrome also doesn’t give the user the ability to manage bookmarks.

With all that said, I have always been partial to Internet Explorer. I work as an Acquisition Specialist for the Defense Logistics Agency and Internet Explorer is what our system expects us to use. It makes managing bookmarks simple and I know have to change any preferences that I need to due to all of the experience that I have had with it. I like the separation of different tabs and the icon that the page title is coupled with. The only problem that I have really ever had with it is browsing speed but wouldn’t doubt it’s due to the internet we have and not so much the browser itself. The only browser I prefer to explorer is Safari. Safari allows you to view multiple pages all at once and I found it very convenient to be able to see the home page of 9 different sites as soon as I opened my browser.

References

McCoy, W. (2011, July 19). eHow. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from The Disadvantages of Google Chrome: http://www.ehow.com/info_8755921_disadvantages-google-chrome.html.

Noyes, K. (2011, June 21). Five Good Reasons to Download Firefox 5. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from PCWorld: http://www.pcworld.com/businesscenter/article/230805/five_good_reasons_to_download_firefox_5.html.

Overa, A. (2011, March 21). Tom's Hardware. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from Efficiency Benchmarks: Memory Usage and Management: http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/internet-explorer-9-chrome-10-opera-11,2897-11.html.

Ryan. (2009, July 9). Browser Benchmarks. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from Cybernetnews: http://cybernetnews.com/browser-comparison-internet-explorer-firefox-chrome-safari-opera/.

Smith, L. (2009). eHow. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from The Disadvantages of Mozilla Firefox: http://www.ehow.com/list_5924888_disadvantages-mozilla-firefox.html.

Tech Media Network. (2012). 2012 Internet Browser Software Product Comparison. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from Top Ten Reviews: http://internet-browser-review.toptenreviews.com/.